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to infer something (FROM something)

  • 1 infer

    in'fə:
    past tense, past participle - inferred; verb
    (to judge (from facts or evidence): I inferred from your silence that you were angry.) inferir, deducir
    tr[ɪn'fɜːSMALLr/SMALL]
    1 inferir ( from, de), deducir ( from, de)
    infer [ɪn'fər] vt, inferred ; inferring
    1) deduce: deducir, inferir
    2) surmise: concluir, suponer, tener entendido
    3) imply: sugerir, insinuar
    v.
    • discurrir v.
    • inducir v.
    • inferir v.
    • sobreentender v.
    • sobrentender v.
    • traslucir v.
    ɪn'fɜːr, ɪn'fɜː(r)

    to infer something (FROM something) — inferir* or deducir* or colegir* algo (de algo)

    [ɪn'fɜː(r)]
    VT
    1) (=deduce) inferir, deducir ( from de)
    2) * (=imply) insinuar

    what are you inferring? — ¿qué estás insinuando?

    * * *
    [ɪn'fɜːr, ɪn'fɜː(r)]

    to infer something (FROM something) — inferir* or deducir* or colegir* algo (de algo)

    English-spanish dictionary > infer

  • 2 infer

    infer [ɪn'fɜ:(r)] (pt & pp inferred, cont inferring)
    (a) (deduce) conclure, inférer, déduire;
    ∎ what are we to infer from their absence? que devons-nous conclure de leur absence?;
    ∎ I inferred from his look that I had done something wrong à son regard, j'ai compris que j'avais fait quelque chose de mal
    (b) familiar (imply) suggérer□, laisser supposer□ ;
    ∎ what are you inferring by that? qu'insinuez-vous par là?□

    Un panorama unique de l'anglais et du français > infer

  • 3 infer

    in'fə:
    past tense, past participle - inferred; verb
    (to judge (from facts or evidence): I inferred from your silence that you were angry.)
    antyde
    --------
    slutte
    verb \/ɪnˈfɜː\/
    1) konkludere, slutte, trekke en konklusjon
    2) ( hverdagslig) antyde
    infer from something slutte av noe, konkludere fra noe, trekke en konklusjon på grunnlag av noe

    English-Norwegian dictionary > infer

  • 4 gather

    1. transitive verb
    1) sammeln; zusammentragen [Informationen]; pflücken [Obst, Blumen]

    gather something [together] — etwas zusammensuchen od. -sammeln

    gather [in] the harvest — die Ernte einbringen

    2) (infer, deduce) schließen ( from aus)

    gather from somebody that... — von jemandem erfahren, dass...

    3)

    gather speed/force — schneller/stärker werden

    gather [together] — zusammennehmen [Kräfte, Mut]

    gather oneself [together] — sich zusammennehmen

    gather one's thoughts — seine Gedanken ordnen

    gather one's breath/strength — [wieder] zu Atem kommen/Kräfte sammeln

    5)
    6) (Sewing) ankrausen
    2. intransitive verb
    1) sich versammeln; [Wolken:] sich zusammenziehen; [Staub:] sich ansammeln; [Schweißperlen:] sich sammeln

    be gathered [together] — versammelt sein

    gather round somebody/something — sich um jemanden/etwas versammeln

    2) (increase) zunehmen

    darkness was gathering — es wurde dunkler

    3. noun in pl.
    (Sewing) Kräusel[falten]
    Phrasal Verbs:
    - academic.ru/87370/gather_up">gather up
    * * *
    ['ɡæðə] 1. verb
    1) (to (cause to) come together in one place: A crowd of people gathered near the accident.) versammeln
    2) (to learn (from what has been seen, heard etc): I gather you are leaving tomorrow.) folgern
    3) (to collect or get: He gathered strawberries from the garden; to gather information.) sammeln
    4) (to pull (material) into small folds and stitch together: She gathered the skirt at the waist.) kräuseln
    2. noun
    (a fold in material, a piece of clothing etc.) die Falte
    - gathering
    - gather round
    - gather together
    * * *
    gath·er
    [ˈgæðəʳ, AM -ɚ]
    I. vt
    ▪ to \gather sth etw sammeln
    we \gathered our things together wir suchten unsere Sachen zusammen
    to \gather berries/herbs/honey Beeren/Kräuter/Honig sammeln
    to \gather the crops die Ernte einbringen
    to \gather flowers Blumen pflücken
    to \gather information Informationen sammeln; (by asking) Informationen einholen
    to \gather intelligence sich dat [geheime] Informationen beschaffen
    to \gather one's thoughts seine Gedanken sammeln, nachdenken; (accumulate)
    to \gather dirt ein Schmutzfänger sein
    to \gather dust ( also fig) verstauben a. fig
    to \gather sb in one's arms jdn in die Arme nehmen
    she \gathered the blanket around her sie wickelte sich enger in die Decke
    ▪ to \gather sth etw kräuseln [o raffen
    to \gather courage seinen Mut zusammennehmen
    to \gather momentum in Fahrt kommen fam
    to \gather speed schneller werden
    to \gather one's strength seine Kräfte sammeln
    ▪ to \gather sth etw verstehen
    6. (believe)
    ▪ to \gather that... glauben, dass...
    Harry's not happy, I \gather (think) wie ich die Sache sehe, ist Harry nicht glücklich; (hear) wie ich höre, ist Harry nicht glücklich
    ▪ to \gather from sth that... aus etw dat schließen, dass...; (read)
    I didn't \gather much from his speech ich konnte seiner Rede nicht viel entnehmen
    ▪ to \gather that... gehört haben, dass...; (find out)
    ▪ to \gather from sb that... von jdm erfahren haben, dass...
    9.
    ▶ to be \gathered to one's fathers ( euph liter) aus diesem Leben abberufen werden geh
    II. vi
    1. (come together) sich akk sammeln; people sich akk versammeln; (accumulate) sich akk ansammeln; clouds sich akk zusammenziehen; a storm heraufziehen, sich akk zusammenbrauen
    we are \gathered here today to... wir haben uns heute hier versammelt, um...
    the clouds of war had been \gathering for several years schon seit einigen Jahren hatte der Krieg seine dunklen Schatten vorausgeworfen
    to \gather at the middle/sides in der Mitte/an den Seiten gerafft sein
    * * *
    ['gðə(r)]
    1. vt
    1) (= collect, bring together) sammeln; crowd, people versammeln; flowers, cultivated fruit pflücken; potatoes, corn etc ernten; harvest einbringen; taxes einziehen; support gewinnen; (= collect up) broken glass, pins etc zusammenlegen, aufsammeln; one's belongings, books, clothes (zusammen)packen

    to gather one's thoughts — seine Gedanken ordnen, sich sammeln

    velvet curtains gather dust/dirt — Samtvorhänge sind Staub-/Schmutzfänger

    it just sat there gathering dust —

    2)

    (= increase) to gather speed — schneller werden, an Geschwindigkeit gewinnen

    3) (= infer) schließen (from aus)

    I gather from the papers that he has... — wie ich aus den Zeitungen ersehe, hat er...

    from what or as far as I can gather —

    as you will have/might have gathered... — wie Sie bestimmt/vielleicht bemerkt haben...

    4)

    he gathered her to him —

    5) (SEW) kräuseln, raffen; (at seam) fassen
    6) (TYP) zusammentragen, kollationieren (spec)
    2. vi
    1) (= collect people) sich versammeln; (objects, dust etc) sich (an)sammeln; (clouds) sich zusammenziehen; (storm) sich zusammenbrauen
    2) (= increase darkness, force etc) zunehmen (in an +dat)
    3) (abscess etc) sich mit Eiter füllen; (pus) sich sammeln
    3. n (SEW)
    Fältchen nt
    * * *
    gather [ˈɡæðə(r)]
    A v/t
    1. etwas (an)sammeln, anhäufen:
    gather wealth Reichtümer aufhäufen oder sammeln;
    gather experience Erfahrung(en) sammeln;
    gather facts Fakten zusammentragen, Material sammeln;
    gather information Informationen einholen oder einziehen;
    gather strength Kräfte sammeln, zu Kräften kommen
    2. Personen versammeln: → father A 3
    3. a) Blumen etc pflücken
    b) Ähren etc lesen, Getreide etc ernten
    4. a) auch gather up auflesen, (-)sammeln, (vom Boden) aufheben, aufnehmen:
    gather together zusammensuchen, zusammenraffen;
    gather sb in one’s arms jemanden in die Arme nehmen oder schließen
    b) SPORT den Ball etc annehmen
    5. erwerben, gewinnen, ansetzen:
    gather dust staubig werden, verstauben;
    his books are gathering dust in the libraries seine Bücher verstauben in den Bibliotheken (werden nicht gelesen);
    a) SCHIFF Fahrt aufnehmen, in Fahrt kommen (a. fig),
    b) fig sich durchsetzen;
    gather speed Geschwindigkeit aufnehmen, schneller werden; → head Bes Redew
    6. Näherei: raffen, kräuseln, zusammenziehen
    7. meist gather up sein Kleid etc aufnehmen, zusammenraffen
    8. die Stirn in Falten ziehen
    10. fig folgern ( auch MATH), schließen, sich etwas zusammenreimen ( alle:
    from aus)
    B v/i
    1. sich (ver)sammeln oder scharen ( round sb um jemanden)
    2. sich häufen, sich (an)sammeln
    3. sich zusammenziehen oder zusammenballen (Wolken, Gewitter; auch fig)
    4. anwachsen, zunehmen, sich entwickeln
    5. sich in Falten legen (Stirn)
    6. MED
    a) reifen (Abszess)
    b) eitern (Wunde)
    * * *
    1. transitive verb
    1) sammeln; zusammentragen [Informationen]; pflücken [Obst, Blumen]

    gather something [together] — etwas zusammensuchen od. -sammeln

    gather [in] the harvest — die Ernte einbringen

    2) (infer, deduce) schließen ( from aus)

    gather from somebody that... — von jemandem erfahren, dass...

    3)

    gather speed/force — schneller/stärker werden

    gather [together] — zusammennehmen [Kräfte, Mut]

    gather oneself [together] — sich zusammennehmen

    gather one's breath/strength — [wieder] zu Atem kommen/Kräfte sammeln

    5)
    6) (Sewing) ankrausen
    2. intransitive verb
    1) sich versammeln; [Wolken:] sich zusammenziehen; [Staub:] sich ansammeln; [Schweißperlen:] sich sammeln

    be gathered [together] — versammelt sein

    gather round somebody/something — sich um jemanden/etwas versammeln

    2) (increase) zunehmen
    3. noun in pl.
    (Sewing) Kräusel[falten]
    Phrasal Verbs:
    * * *
    v.
    erfassen v.
    heranziehen (Wolken) v.
    pflücken v.
    sammeln v.
    sich ansammeln v.
    versammeln v.

    English-german dictionary > gather

  • 5 understand

    1. transitive verb,

    understand something by something — etwas unter etwas (Dat.) verstehen

    2) (have heard) gehört haben

    I understand him to be a distant relation — ich glaube, er ist ein entfernter Verwandter

    3) (take as implied)

    it was understood that... — es wurde allgemein angenommen, dass...

    do I understand that...? — gehe ich recht in der Annahme, dass...? See also academic.ru/31215/give">give 1. 5); make 1. 6)

    2. intransitive verb,
    1) (have understanding) verstehen
    2) (gather, hear)

    he is, I understand, no longer here — er ist, wie ich höre, nicht mehr hier

    * * *
    1. past tense, past participle - understood; verb
    1) (to see or know the meaning of (something): I can't understand his absence; Speak slowly to foreigners so that they'll understand you.) verstehen
    2) (to know (eg a person) thoroughly: She understands children/dogs.) sich verstehen auf
    3) (to learn or realize (something), eg from information received: At first I didn't understand how ill she was; I understood that you were planning to leave today.) annehmen
    •
    - understandable
    - understanding 2. noun
    1) (the power of thinking clearly: a man of great understanding.) der Verstand
    2) (the ability to sympathize with another person's feelings: His kindness and understanding were a great comfort to her.) das Verständnis
    3) (a (state of) informal agreement: The two men have come to / reached an understanding after their disagreement.) die Einigung
    •
    - make oneself understood
    - make understood
    * * *
    under·stand
    <-stood, -stood>
    [ˌʌndəˈstænd, AM -ɚˈ-]
    I. vt
    1. (perceive meaning)
    ▪ to \understand sth/sb etw/jdn verstehen
    the pub was so noisy I couldn't \understand a word he said in der Kneipe ging es so laut zu, dass ich kein Wort von dem, was er sagte, verstehen konnte
    to \understand one another [or each other] sich akk verstehen
    to make oneself understood sich akk verständlich machen
    2. (comprehend significance)
    ▪ to \understand sb/sth jdn/etw begreifen [o verstehen]
    ▪ to \understand what/why/when/how... begreifen, was/warum/wann/wie...
    ▪ to \understand that... verstehen, dass...
    ▪ to \understand sb/sth für jdn/etw Verständnis haben
    I can \understand your feeling upset about what has happened ich kann verstehen, dass du wegen des Vorfalls betroffen bist
    ▪ to \understand sb sich akk in jdn einfühlen können
    Jack really \understands horses Jack kann wirklich mit Pferden umgehen
    5. (be informed)
    ▪ to \understand [that]... hören, dass...
    I \understand [that] you are interested in borrowing some money from us Sie sollen an einem Darlehen von uns interessiert sein
    to give sb to \understand that... jdm zu verstehen geben, dass...
    when he said 3 o'clock, I understood him to mean in the afternoon als er von 3 Uhr sprach, ging ich davon aus, dass der Nachmittag gemeint war
    a secret buyer is understood to have paid £3 million for the three pictures ein ungenannter Käufer soll 3 Millionen Pfund für die drei Bilder bezahlt haben
    as I \understand it, we either agree to a pay cut or get the sack so, wie ich es sehe, erklären wir uns entweder mit einer Gehaltskürzung einverstanden oder man setzt uns vor die Tür
    ▪ to \understand that... annehmen, dass...
    7. (be generally accepted)
    ▪ to be understood that... klar sein, dass...
    in the library it is understood that loud talking is not permissible es dürfte allgemein bekannt sein, dass lautes Sprechen in der Bibliothek nicht gestattet ist
    when Alan invites you to dinner, it's understood that it'll be more of an alcohol than a food experience wenn Alan zum Dinner einlädt, dann ist schon klar, dass der Alkohol im Mittelpunkt steht
    in this context, ‘America’ is understood to refer to the United States in diesem Kontext sind mit ‚Amerika‘ selbstverständlich die Vereinigten Staaten gemeint
    II. vi
    1. (comprehend) verstehen
    she explained again what the computer was doing but I still didn't \understand sie erklärte nochmals, was der Computer machte, aber ich kapierte immer noch nicht
    ▪ to \understand about sth/sb etw/jdn verstehen
    Jane's dad never understood about how important her singing was to her Janes Vater hat nie verstanden, wie wichtig das Singen für sie war
    ▪ to \understand from sth that... aus etw dat schließen, dass...
    ▪ to \understand from sb that... von jdm hören, dass...
    I've been promoted — so I \understand ich bin befördert worden — ich habe davon gehört
    * * *
    ["ʌndə'stnd] pret, ptp understood
    1. vt
    1) language, painting, statement, speaker verstehen; action, event, person, difficulty also begreifen

    I don't understand Russian —

    I can't understand his agreeing to do it — ich kann nicht verstehen or es ist mir unbegreiflich, warum er sich dazu bereit erklärt hat

    what do you understand by "pragmatism"? — was verstehen Sie unter "Pragmatismus"?

    2) (= comprehend sympathetically) children, people, animals, doubts, fears verstehen
    3)

    (= believe) I understand that you are going to Australia — ich höre, Sie gehen nach Australien

    I understand that you've already met her — Sie haben sich, soviel ich weiß, schon kennengelernt

    I understood (that) he was abroad/we were to have been consulted — ich dachte, er sei im Ausland/wir sollten dazu befragt werden

    am I/are we to understand that...? — soll das etwa heißen, dass...?

    as I understand it,... — soweit ich weiß,...

    did I understand him to say that...? — habe ich richtig verstanden, dass er sagte,...?

    but I understood her to say that she agreed — aber soweit ich sie verstanden habe, hat sie zugestimmt

    to give sb to understand that... — jdm zu verstehen geben, dass...

    I was given to understand that... — man hat mir bedeutet, dass...

    I understood from his speech that... — ich schloss aus seiner Rede, dass...

    4) (GRAM: supply) word sich (dat) denken, (im Stillen) ergänzen → also understood
    See:
    → also understood
    2. vi
    1) (= comprehend) verstehen

    (do you) understand? — (hast du/haben Sie das) verstanden?

    but you don't understand, I must have the money now — aber verstehen Sie doch, ich brauche das Geld jetzt!

    2)

    (= believe) so I understand — es scheint so

    he was, I understand, a widower — wie ich hörte, war er Witwer

    * * *
    A v/t
    1. verstehen:
    a) begreifen
    b) einsehen
    c) wörtlich etc auffassen
    d) (volles) Verständnis haben für:
    understand each other sich oder einander verstehen, auch zu einer Einigung gelangen;
    give sb to understand that … jemandem zu verstehen geben, dass …;
    make o.s. understood sich verständlich machen;
    do I ( oder am I to) understand that …? soll das heißen, dass …?;
    what do you understand by …? was verstehen Sie unter … (dat)?
    2. sich verstehen auf (akk), sich auskennen in (dat), wissen ( how to do sth wie man etwas macht);
    he understands horses er versteht sich auf Pferde;
    she understands children sie kann mit Kindern umgehen
    3. voraussetzen, (als sicher oder gegeben) annehmen:
    that is understood das versteht sich (von selbst);
    it is understood that … auch JUR es gilt als vereinbart, dass …; es wird davon ausgegangen, dass …;
    an understood thing eine aus- oder abgemachte Sache
    4. erfahren, hören:
    I understand that … ich hör(t)e oder man sagt(e) mir, dass …;
    I understand him to be ( oder that he is) an expert wie ich höre, ist er ein Fachmann;
    it is understood es heißt, wie verlautet
    5. (from) entnehmen (dat oder aus), schließen oder heraushören (aus):
    6. besonders LING bei sich oder sinngemäß ergänzen, hinzudenken:
    in this phrase the verb is understood in diesem Satz muss das Verb (sinngemäß) ergänzt werden
    B v/i
    1. verstehen:
    a) begreifen
    b) (volles) Verständnis haben:
    (do you) understand? verstanden?;
    he will understand er wird es oder mich etc (schon) verstehen;
    you are too young to understand du bist zu jung, um das zu verstehen
    2. Verstand haben
    3. Bescheid wissen ( about sth über eine Sache):
    not understand about nichts verstehen von
    4. hören:
    …, so I understand wie ich höre, …
    * * *
    1. transitive verb,
    2) (have heard) gehört haben

    I understand him to be a distant relation — ich glaube, er ist ein entfernter Verwandter

    it was understood that... — es wurde allgemein angenommen, dass...

    do I understand that...? — gehe ich recht in der Annahme, dass...? See also give 1. 5); make 1. 6)

    2. intransitive verb,
    2) (gather, hear)

    he is, I understand, no longer here — er ist, wie ich höre, nicht mehr hier

    * * *
    v.
    (§ p.,p.p.: understood)
    = begreifen v.
    einsehen v.
    fassen v.
    kapieren v.
    nachvollziehen v.
    verstehen v.

    English-german dictionary > understand

  • 6 understand

    1. past tense, past participle - understood; verb
    1) (to see or know the meaning of (something): I can't understand his absence; Speak slowly to foreigners so that they'll understand you.) comprender, entender
    2) (to know (eg a person) thoroughly: She understands children/dogs.) comprender, entender
    3) (to learn or realize (something), eg from information received: At first I didn't understand how ill she was; I understood that you were planning to leave today.) comprender, entender; tener entendido
    •
    - understanding
    2. noun
    1) (the power of thinking clearly: a man of great understanding.) inteligencia, entendimiento
    2) (the ability to sympathize with another person's feelings: His kindness and understanding were a great comfort to her.) comprensión
    3) (a (state of) informal agreement: The two men have come to / reached an understanding after their disagreement.) entendimiento
    •
    - make oneself understood
    - make understood
    understand vb entender / comprender
    are you sure that you understand it all? ¿estás seguro de que lo entiendes todo?
    tr[ʌndə'stænd]
    transitive verb (pt & pp understood tr[ʌndə'stʊd])
    1 entender, comprender
    2 (believe) tener entendido
    4 (take for granted) sobreentender
    \
    SMALLIDIOMATIC EXPRESSION/SMALL
    to give to understand dar a entender
    understand [.ʌndər'stænd] v, - stood [-'stʊd;] ; - standing vt
    1) comprehend: comprender, entender
    I don't understand it: no lo entiendo
    that's understood: eso se comprende
    to make oneself understood: hacerse entender
    2) believe: entender
    to give someone to understand: dar a alguien a entender
    3) infer: tener entendido
    I understand that she's leaving: tengo entendido que se va
    : comprender, entender
    v.
    (§ p.,p.p.: understood) = comprender (En tender) v.
    • entender v.
    • sobreentender v.
    • sobrentender v.
    'ʌndər'stænd, ˌʌndə'stænd
    1.
    (past & past p - stood) transitive verb
    1)
    a) ( grasp meaning of) entender*

    I can't understand why he did it — no logro entender or comprender por qué lo hizo

    I don't want it to happen again; have I made myself understood? — no quiero que vuelva a suceder ¿está claro?

    b) ( interpret) entender*, interpretar

    as I understand it,... — según tengo entendido,..., por lo que entiendo,..., según creo,...

    what do you understand by the term `deprivation'? — ¿qué entiendes tú por `privaciones'?

    c) (sympathize, empathize with) comprender, entender*
    2) (believe, infer)

    am I to understand that you won't help? — ¿entonces quiere decir que no me van a ayudar?

    I was given to understand I'd get my money back — me dieron a entender que me devolverían el dinero; see also understood II


    2.
    vi entender*, comprender
    [ˌʌndǝ'stænd] (pt, pp understood)
    1. VT
    1) (=comprehend) (gen) entender; (more formal, esp complex issues) comprender

    I can't understand it! — ¡no lo entiendo!

    I don't want to hear another word about it, (is that) understood? — no quiero que se hable más del tema, ¿entendido or comprendido?

    it must be understood that... — debe entenderse que...

    you must understand that we're very busy — debes entender or comprender que estamos muy ocupados

    • to understand how/ why — entender or comprender cómo/por qué

    2) (=follow, interpret) entender

    did I understand you correctly? — ¿te entendí bien?

    • to make o.s. understood — hacerse entender

    do I make myself understood? — ¿queda claro?

    3) (=empathize with) [+ person, point of view, attitude] comprender, entender

    she understands children — comprende or entiende a los niños

    I (fully) understand your position — comprendo or entiendo (totalmente) su posición

    4) (=know) [+ language] entender
    5) (=believe) tener entendido

    • as I understand it, he's trying to set up a meeting — según tengo entendido or según creo está intentando convocar una reunión

    it's understood that he had a heart attack — se piensa or cree que sufrió un infarto

    am I to understand that...? — ¿debo entender que...?

    we confirm our reservation and we understand (that) the rental will be 500 euros — confirmamos nuestra reserva y entendemos que el alquiler será de 500 euros

    • to give sb to understand that — dar a algn a entender que

    we were given to understand that... — se nos dio a entender que...

    • it was understood that he would pay for it — se dio por sentado que él lo pagaría

    • he let it be understood that... — dio a entender que...

    2. VI
    1) (=comprehend) entender; (more emphatic) comprender

    do you understand? — ¿entiendes or comprendes?

    now I understand! — ¡ahora entiendo!, ¡ahora comprendo!

    there's to be no noise, (do you) understand? — que no haya ruido, ¿entiendes or comprendes?

    2) (=believe)

    she was, I understand, a Catholic — según tengo entendido era católica

    3) (=accept sb's position) entender; (esp in more complex situation) comprender

    he'll understand — lo entenderá or comprenderá

    don't worry, I quite understand — no te preocupes, lo entiendo or comprendo perfectamente

    * * *
    ['ʌndər'stænd, ˌʌndə'stænd]
    1.
    (past & past p - stood) transitive verb
    1)
    a) ( grasp meaning of) entender*

    I can't understand why he did it — no logro entender or comprender por qué lo hizo

    I don't want it to happen again; have I made myself understood? — no quiero que vuelva a suceder ¿está claro?

    b) ( interpret) entender*, interpretar

    as I understand it,... — según tengo entendido,..., por lo que entiendo,..., según creo,...

    what do you understand by the term `deprivation'? — ¿qué entiendes tú por `privaciones'?

    c) (sympathize, empathize with) comprender, entender*
    2) (believe, infer)

    am I to understand that you won't help? — ¿entonces quiere decir que no me van a ayudar?

    I was given to understand I'd get my money back — me dieron a entender que me devolverían el dinero; see also understood II


    2.
    vi entender*, comprender

    English-spanish dictionary > understand

  • 7 Artificial Intelligence

       In my opinion, none of [these programs] does even remote justice to the complexity of human mental processes. Unlike men, "artificially intelligent" programs tend to be single minded, undistractable, and unemotional. (Neisser, 1967, p. 9)
       Future progress in [artificial intelligence] will depend on the development of both practical and theoretical knowledge.... As regards theoretical knowledge, some have sought a unified theory of artificial intelligence. My view is that artificial intelligence is (or soon will be) an engineering discipline since its primary goal is to build things. (Nilsson, 1971, pp. vii-viii)
       Most workers in AI [artificial intelligence] research and in related fields confess to a pronounced feeling of disappointment in what has been achieved in the last 25 years. Workers entered the field around 1950, and even around 1960, with high hopes that are very far from being realized in 1972. In no part of the field have the discoveries made so far produced the major impact that was then promised.... In the meantime, claims and predictions regarding the potential results of AI research had been publicized which went even farther than the expectations of the majority of workers in the field, whose embarrassments have been added to by the lamentable failure of such inflated predictions....
       When able and respected scientists write in letters to the present author that AI, the major goal of computing science, represents "another step in the general process of evolution"; that possibilities in the 1980s include an all-purpose intelligence on a human-scale knowledge base; that awe-inspiring possibilities suggest themselves based on machine intelligence exceeding human intelligence by the year 2000 [one has the right to be skeptical]. (Lighthill, 1972, p. 17)
       4) Just as Astronomy Succeeded Astrology, the Discovery of Intellectual Processes in Machines Should Lead to a Science, Eventually
       Just as astronomy succeeded astrology, following Kepler's discovery of planetary regularities, the discoveries of these many principles in empirical explorations on intellectual processes in machines should lead to a science, eventually. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       Many problems arise in experiments on machine intelligence because things obvious to any person are not represented in any program. One can pull with a string, but one cannot push with one.... Simple facts like these caused serious problems when Charniak attempted to extend Bobrow's "Student" program to more realistic applications, and they have not been faced up to until now. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 77)
       What do we mean by [a symbolic] "description"? We do not mean to suggest that our descriptions must be made of strings of ordinary language words (although they might be). The simplest kind of description is a structure in which some features of a situation are represented by single ("primitive") symbols, and relations between those features are represented by other symbols-or by other features of the way the description is put together. (Minsky & Papert, 1973, p. 11)
       [AI is] the use of computer programs and programming techniques to cast light on the principles of intelligence in general and human thought in particular. (Boden, 1977, p. 5)
       The word you look for and hardly ever see in the early AI literature is the word knowledge. They didn't believe you have to know anything, you could always rework it all.... In fact 1967 is the turning point in my mind when there was enough feeling that the old ideas of general principles had to go.... I came up with an argument for what I called the primacy of expertise, and at the time I called the other guys the generalists. (Moses, quoted in McCorduck, 1979, pp. 228-229)
       9) Artificial Intelligence Is Psychology in a Particularly Pure and Abstract Form
       The basic idea of cognitive science is that intelligent beings are semantic engines-in other words, automatic formal systems with interpretations under which they consistently make sense. We can now see why this includes psychology and artificial intelligence on a more or less equal footing: people and intelligent computers (if and when there are any) turn out to be merely different manifestations of the same underlying phenomenon. Moreover, with universal hardware, any semantic engine can in principle be formally imitated by a computer if only the right program can be found. And that will guarantee semantic imitation as well, since (given the appropriate formal behavior) the semantics is "taking care of itself" anyway. Thus we also see why, from this perspective, artificial intelligence can be regarded as psychology in a particularly pure and abstract form. The same fundamental structures are under investigation, but in AI, all the relevant parameters are under direct experimental control (in the programming), without any messy physiology or ethics to get in the way. (Haugeland, 1981b, p. 31)
       There are many different kinds of reasoning one might imagine:
        Formal reasoning involves the syntactic manipulation of data structures to deduce new ones following prespecified rules of inference. Mathematical logic is the archetypical formal representation. Procedural reasoning uses simulation to answer questions and solve problems. When we use a program to answer What is the sum of 3 and 4? it uses, or "runs," a procedural model of arithmetic. Reasoning by analogy seems to be a very natural mode of thought for humans but, so far, difficult to accomplish in AI programs. The idea is that when you ask the question Can robins fly? the system might reason that "robins are like sparrows, and I know that sparrows can fly, so robins probably can fly."
        Generalization and abstraction are also natural reasoning process for humans that are difficult to pin down well enough to implement in a program. If one knows that Robins have wings, that Sparrows have wings, and that Blue jays have wings, eventually one will believe that All birds have wings. This capability may be at the core of most human learning, but it has not yet become a useful technique in AI.... Meta- level reasoning is demonstrated by the way one answers the question What is Paul Newman's telephone number? You might reason that "if I knew Paul Newman's number, I would know that I knew it, because it is a notable fact." This involves using "knowledge about what you know," in particular, about the extent of your knowledge and about the importance of certain facts. Recent research in psychology and AI indicates that meta-level reasoning may play a central role in human cognitive processing. (Barr & Feigenbaum, 1981, pp. 146-147)
       Suffice it to say that programs already exist that can do things-or, at the very least, appear to be beginning to do things-which ill-informed critics have asserted a priori to be impossible. Examples include: perceiving in a holistic as opposed to an atomistic way; using language creatively; translating sensibly from one language to another by way of a language-neutral semantic representation; planning acts in a broad and sketchy fashion, the details being decided only in execution; distinguishing between different species of emotional reaction according to the psychological context of the subject. (Boden, 1981, p. 33)
       Can the synthesis of Man and Machine ever be stable, or will the purely organic component become such a hindrance that it has to be discarded? If this eventually happens-and I have... good reasons for thinking that it must-we have nothing to regret and certainly nothing to fear. (Clarke, 1984, p. 243)
       The thesis of GOFAI... is not that the processes underlying intelligence can be described symbolically... but that they are symbolic. (Haugeland, 1985, p. 113)
        14) Artificial Intelligence Provides a Useful Approach to Psychological and Psychiatric Theory Formation
       It is all very well formulating psychological and psychiatric theories verbally but, when using natural language (even technical jargon), it is difficult to recognise when a theory is complete; oversights are all too easily made, gaps too readily left. This is a point which is generally recognised to be true and it is for precisely this reason that the behavioural sciences attempt to follow the natural sciences in using "classical" mathematics as a more rigorous descriptive language. However, it is an unfortunate fact that, with a few notable exceptions, there has been a marked lack of success in this application. It is my belief that a different approach-a different mathematics-is needed, and that AI provides just this approach. (Hand, quoted in Hand, 1985, pp. 6-7)
       We might distinguish among four kinds of AI.
       Research of this kind involves building and programming computers to perform tasks which, to paraphrase Marvin Minsky, would require intelligence if they were done by us. Researchers in nonpsychological AI make no claims whatsoever about the psychological realism of their programs or the devices they build, that is, about whether or not computers perform tasks as humans do.
       Research here is guided by the view that the computer is a useful tool in the study of mind. In particular, we can write computer programs or build devices that simulate alleged psychological processes in humans and then test our predictions about how the alleged processes work. We can weave these programs and devices together with other programs and devices that simulate different alleged mental processes and thereby test the degree to which the AI system as a whole simulates human mentality. According to weak psychological AI, working with computer models is a way of refining and testing hypotheses about processes that are allegedly realized in human minds.
    ... According to this view, our minds are computers and therefore can be duplicated by other computers. Sherry Turkle writes that the "real ambition is of mythic proportions, making a general purpose intelligence, a mind." (Turkle, 1984, p. 240) The authors of a major text announce that "the ultimate goal of AI research is to build a person or, more humbly, an animal." (Charniak & McDermott, 1985, p. 7)
       Research in this field, like strong psychological AI, takes seriously the functionalist view that mentality can be realized in many different types of physical devices. Suprapsychological AI, however, accuses strong psychological AI of being chauvinisticof being only interested in human intelligence! Suprapsychological AI claims to be interested in all the conceivable ways intelligence can be realized. (Flanagan, 1991, pp. 241-242)
        16) Determination of Relevance of Rules in Particular Contexts
       Even if the [rules] were stored in a context-free form the computer still couldn't use them. To do that the computer requires rules enabling it to draw on just those [ rules] which are relevant in each particular context. Determination of relevance will have to be based on further facts and rules, but the question will again arise as to which facts and rules are relevant for making each particular determination. One could always invoke further facts and rules to answer this question, but of course these must be only the relevant ones. And so it goes. It seems that AI workers will never be able to get started here unless they can settle the problem of relevance beforehand by cataloguing types of context and listing just those facts which are relevant in each. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 80)
       Perhaps the single most important idea to artificial intelligence is that there is no fundamental difference between form and content, that meaning can be captured in a set of symbols such as a semantic net. (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        18) The Assumption That the Mind Is a Formal System
       Artificial intelligence is based on the assumption that the mind can be described as some kind of formal system manipulating symbols that stand for things in the world. Thus it doesn't matter what the brain is made of, or what it uses for tokens in the great game of thinking. Using an equivalent set of tokens and rules, we can do thinking with a digital computer, just as we can play chess using cups, salt and pepper shakers, knives, forks, and spoons. Using the right software, one system (the mind) can be mapped into the other (the computer). (G. Johnson, 1986, p. 250)
        19) A Statement of the Primary and Secondary Purposes of Artificial Intelligence
       The primary goal of Artificial Intelligence is to make machines smarter.
       The secondary goals of Artificial Intelligence are to understand what intelligence is (the Nobel laureate purpose) and to make machines more useful (the entrepreneurial purpose). (Winston, 1987, p. 1)
       The theoretical ideas of older branches of engineering are captured in the language of mathematics. We contend that mathematical logic provides the basis for theory in AI. Although many computer scientists already count logic as fundamental to computer science in general, we put forward an even stronger form of the logic-is-important argument....
       AI deals mainly with the problem of representing and using declarative (as opposed to procedural) knowledge. Declarative knowledge is the kind that is expressed as sentences, and AI needs a language in which to state these sentences. Because the languages in which this knowledge usually is originally captured (natural languages such as English) are not suitable for computer representations, some other language with the appropriate properties must be used. It turns out, we think, that the appropriate properties include at least those that have been uppermost in the minds of logicians in their development of logical languages such as the predicate calculus. Thus, we think that any language for expressing knowledge in AI systems must be at least as expressive as the first-order predicate calculus. (Genesereth & Nilsson, 1987, p. viii)
        21) Perceptual Structures Can Be Represented as Lists of Elementary Propositions
       In artificial intelligence studies, perceptual structures are represented as assemblages of description lists, the elementary components of which are propositions asserting that certain relations hold among elements. (Chase & Simon, 1988, p. 490)
       Artificial intelligence (AI) is sometimes defined as the study of how to build and/or program computers to enable them to do the sorts of things that minds can do. Some of these things are commonly regarded as requiring intelligence: offering a medical diagnosis and/or prescription, giving legal or scientific advice, proving theorems in logic or mathematics. Others are not, because they can be done by all normal adults irrespective of educational background (and sometimes by non-human animals too), and typically involve no conscious control: seeing things in sunlight and shadows, finding a path through cluttered terrain, fitting pegs into holes, speaking one's own native tongue, and using one's common sense. Because it covers AI research dealing with both these classes of mental capacity, this definition is preferable to one describing AI as making computers do "things that would require intelligence if done by people." However, it presupposes that computers could do what minds can do, that they might really diagnose, advise, infer, and understand. One could avoid this problematic assumption (and also side-step questions about whether computers do things in the same way as we do) by defining AI instead as "the development of computers whose observable performance has features which in humans we would attribute to mental processes." This bland characterization would be acceptable to some AI workers, especially amongst those focusing on the production of technological tools for commercial purposes. But many others would favour a more controversial definition, seeing AI as the science of intelligence in general-or, more accurately, as the intellectual core of cognitive science. As such, its goal is to provide a systematic theory that can explain (and perhaps enable us to replicate) both the general categories of intentionality and the diverse psychological capacities grounded in them. (Boden, 1990b, pp. 1-2)
       Because the ability to store data somewhat corresponds to what we call memory in human beings, and because the ability to follow logical procedures somewhat corresponds to what we call reasoning in human beings, many members of the cult have concluded that what computers do somewhat corresponds to what we call thinking. It is no great difficulty to persuade the general public of that conclusion since computers process data very fast in small spaces well below the level of visibility; they do not look like other machines when they are at work. They seem to be running along as smoothly and silently as the brain does when it remembers and reasons and thinks. On the other hand, those who design and build computers know exactly how the machines are working down in the hidden depths of their semiconductors. Computers can be taken apart, scrutinized, and put back together. Their activities can be tracked, analyzed, measured, and thus clearly understood-which is far from possible with the brain. This gives rise to the tempting assumption on the part of the builders and designers that computers can tell us something about brains, indeed, that the computer can serve as a model of the mind, which then comes to be seen as some manner of information processing machine, and possibly not as good at the job as the machine. (Roszak, 1994, pp. xiv-xv)
       The inner workings of the human mind are far more intricate than the most complicated systems of modern technology. Researchers in the field of artificial intelligence have been attempting to develop programs that will enable computers to display intelligent behavior. Although this field has been an active one for more than thirty-five years and has had many notable successes, AI researchers still do not know how to create a program that matches human intelligence. No existing program can recall facts, solve problems, reason, learn, and process language with human facility. This lack of success has occurred not because computers are inferior to human brains but rather because we do not yet know in sufficient detail how intelligence is organized in the brain. (Anderson, 1995, p. 2)

    Historical dictionary of quotations in cognitive science > Artificial Intelligence

См. также в других словарях:

  • infer — verb inferred, inferring (T) to form an opinion that something is probably true because of other information that you already know: infer sth from: facts that can be inferred from archaeological data | infer that: It would be wrong to infer that… …   Longman dictionary of contemporary English

  • infer */ — UK [ɪnˈfɜː(r)] / US [ɪnˈfɜr] verb [transitive] Word forms infer : present tense I/you/we/they infer he/she/it infers present participle inferring past tense inferred past participle inferred formal to form an opinion about something that is based …   English dictionary

  • infer — verb (infers, inferring, inferred) deduce from evidence and reasoning rather than from explicit statements. Derivatives inferable (also inferrable) adjective Origin C15 (in the sense bring about, inflict ): from L. inferre bring in, bring about …   English new terms dictionary

  • infer — in|fer [ ın fɜr ] verb transitive FORMAL * to form an opinion about something that is based on information you already have: infer something from something: A link between the two conditions can be inferred from previous studies. infer (that):… …   Usage of the words and phrases in modern English

  • infer — in|fer [ınˈfə: US ə:r] v past tense and past participle inferred present participle inferring [T] [Date: 1500 1600; : Latin; Origin: inferre, from ferre to carry ] to form an opinion that something is probably true because of information that you …   Dictionary of contemporary English

  • infer — infer, imply 1. The only point noted by Fowler (1926) was that the inflected forms of infer are inferred and inferring, and this is thankfully still true (but note inferable or inferrable, with one r or two, and inference with only one r). Fowler …   Modern English usage

  • infer — infer, deduce, conclude, judge, gather are comparable when they mean to arrive at by reasoning from evidence or from premises. All except gather are so clearly differentiated in logical use that these distinctions tend to be retained in general… …   New Dictionary of Synonyms

  • infer — [in fʉr′] vt. inferred, inferring [L inferre, to bring or carry in, infer < in , in + ferre, to carry, BEAR1] 1. Obs. to bring on or about; cause; induce 2. to conclude or decide from something known or assumed; derive by reasoning; draw as a… …   English World dictionary

  • infer — I (New American Roget s College Thesaurus) v. t. gather, reason, deduce, conclude, opine; presume; construe. See reasoning. II (Roget s IV) v. 1. [To reach a conclusion] Syn. conclude, deduce, gather, judge, come to the conclusion that, draw the… …   English dictionary for students

  • infer — verb is it really possible to infer that a crime was committed, given this flimsy evidence? Syn: deduce, conclude, conjecture, surmise, reason, interpret; gather, understand, presume, assume, take it, extrapolate; read between the lines, figure… …   Thesaurus of popular words

  • infer — [[t]ɪnfɜ͟ː(r)[/t]] infers, inferring, inferred 1) VERB If you infer that something is the case, you decide that it is true on the basis of information that you already have. [V that] I inferred from what she said that you have not been well... [V …   English dictionary

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